Extraction of the Rare Element Vanadium

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metals Review Extraction of the Rare Element Vanadium from Vanadium-Containing Materials by Chlorination Method: A Critical Review Shiyuan Liu, Weihua Xue and Lijun Wang * 􏰁􏰂􏰃 􏰅􏰆􏰇 􏰈􏰉􏰊􏰋􏰌􏰂􏰍 Citation: Liu,S.;Xue,W.;Wang,L. Extraction of the Rare Element Vanadium from Vanadium- Containing Materials by Chlorination Method: A Critical Review. Metals 2021,11,1301. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/met11081301 Academic Editor: Petros E. Tsakiridis Received: 21 July 2021 Accepted: 13 August 2021 Published: 17 August 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- iations. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). Collaborative Innovation Center of Steel Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; shiyuanliu126@126.com (S.L.); 18435180612@163.com (W.X.) * Correspondence: lijunwang@ustb.edu.cn Abstract: Vanadium as a rare element has a wide range of applications in iron and steel production, vanadium flow batteries, catalysts, etc. In 2018, the world’s total vanadium output calculated in the form of metal vanadium was 91,844 t. The raw materials for the production of vanadium products mainly include vanadium-titanium magnetite, vanadium slag, stone coal, petroleum coke, fly ash, and spent catalysts, etc. Chlorinated metallurgy has a wide range of applications in the treatment of ore, slag, solid wastes, etc. Chlorinating agent plays an important role in chlorination metallurgy, which is divided into solid (NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, AlCl3, FeCl2, FeCl3, MgCl2, NH4Cl, NaClO, and NaClO3) and gas (Cl2, HCl, and CCl4). The chlorination of vanadium oxides (V2O3 and V2O5) by different chlorinating agents was investigated from the thermodynamics. Meanwhile, this paper summarizes the research progress of chlorination in the treatment of vanadium-containing materials. This paper has important reference significance for further adopting the chlorination method to treat vanadium-containing raw materials. Keywords: vanadium; chlorination metallurgy; chlorination agents; NaCl roasting; carbochlorina- tion; thermodynamics; molten salt chlorination 1. Introduction Vanadium is located in the fourth period and fifth (VB) group of the periodic table and which occupies the 23rd position in the periodic table of elements. The symbol of the vanadium element is V. The physical characteristics of vanadium are a melting point of 1929 ◦C, boiling point of 3350 ◦C, relative atomic mass of 50.9415, and density of 5.96 (g/cm3), and it is a silver grey metal [1,2]. The valence of vanadium in compounds can be +2, +3, +4, and +5 [3]. At present, there are known vanadium oxides such as V2O3, VO2, V2O5, V3O5, V3O7, V4O7, V5O9, V6O11, and V6O13, among which the pentavalent vanadium compounds are the most stable [4]. The main chlorides are VOCl3, VOCl, VCl5, VCl4, VCl3, VCl2, and VCl, among which VOCl3 are the most stable [5]. However, the toxicity of vanadium compounds increases with the increase of vanadium valence, and the pentavalent vanadium compounds are the most toxic. Thus, compounds containing pentavalent vanadium, such as NaVO3, NH4VO3, V2O5, and VOCl3, are the most toxic [6]. Toxic vanadium compounds can exist in both cationic and anionic forms [7]. Vanadium as a rare element has a wide range of applications in iron and steel produc- tion, vanadium flow batteries, catalysts, etc. [8,9]. The raw materials for the production of vanadium products mainly include vanadium-titanium magnetite, vanadium slag, stone coal, petroleum coke, fly ash, and spent catalysts, etc. [1,8,9]. Salt roasting (Na2CO3, NaCl, NaOH, CaO, etc.) was applied to extract vanadium from vanadium-containing materi- als [1,8,9]. However, the salt roasting method extraction of vanadium from vanadium slag is associated with the formation of a large amount of sludge and significant losses of vana- dium [10]. Previous review articles on vanadium extraction from vanadium-containing Metals 2021, 11, 1301. https://doi.org/10.3390/met11081301 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

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