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NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11102-2 ARTICLE ab 0.8 Cycle 1, CE: 92.4% 0.6 Cycle 2, CE: 98.9% Cycle 3, CE: 99.3% 0.4 Cycle 4, CE: 99.9% Cycle 5, CE: 99.9% 0.2 0.0 –0.2 –0.4 –0.6 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 Potential (V vs. Na/Na+) 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 No discharge capacity Buffered Na-CI-IL Buffered NA-CI-IL without [EMIm]FSI 0 20 40 60 80 100 Specific capacity (mAh g–1) c 4.0 3.8 3.6 3.4 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 e 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 d 400 mA g–1, CE: 99.5% 200 mA g–1, CE: 99.9% 100 mA g–1, CE: 99.9% 50 mA g–1, CE: 99.6% 25 mA g–1, CE: 98.9% 0 20 40 60 80 100 Specific capacity (mAh g–1) 0 10 20 Cycle number 30 40 100 200 300 400 500 Cycle number Fig. 3 Na/NVP/@GO cell performances in buffered Na–Cl–IL electrolyte. a CV curves of a Na/NVP@rGO cell using buffered Na–Cl–IL electrolyte at a scan rate of 2 mV s−1. b Initial galvanostatic charge-discharge curves of a Na/NVP@rGO cell using buffered Na–Cl–IL electrolytes with and without [EMIm]FSI additive at 25 mA g−1. c Galvanostatic charge-discharge curves of a Na/NVP@rGO cell using buffered Na–Cl–IL electrolyte at varied current densities from 25 to 400 mA g−1. d, e Rate and cyclic stability of a Na/NVP@rGO cell using buffered Na–Cl–IL electrolyte. The boxed region of (e) corresponds to the rate performance of (d) at varied current densities from 20 to 500 mA g−1. After that, a current density of 150 mA g−1 was used for cycling substrate (see Method). NVP was a widely explored positive electrode material for rapid and reversible Na ion insertion/de- insertion in its lattice, and the interconnected conducting net- work formed by rGO sheets further enhanced the charge transfer process37,38. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements showed a NASICON-type framework with R3c̅ space group with high crystallinity of the synthesized NVP@rGO particles (Sup- plementary Fig. 5). SEM and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed NVP particles several hundred micrometers in size blended with rGO sheets (Supplementary Figs. 6 and 7). The lattice fringes with d-spacings of 0.44 and 0.34 nm were assigned to the (104) planes of rhombohedral NVP and (002) planes of multi-layered rGO respectively37. The rGO content of the NVP@rGO hybrid was around 1.1 wt% determined by thermo- gravimetric analysis (TGA, Supplementary Fig. 8). Cyclic voltammetry of a Na/NVP@rGO cell with the optimized buffered Na–Cl–IL electrolyte (see supplementary Fig. 9 for electrolyte optimization) showed a pair of oxidation and reduction peaks corresponding to the redox reactions of V3 +/V4+ couples, and the CE increased to ~99.9 % within four cycles and then stabilized (Fig. 3a). A mass loading of NVP@rGO ~ 3.0 mg cm−2 was used unless specified otherwise. A charge- discharge plateau at ~ 3.4 V was seen with a specific discharge capacity of 93.3 mA g−1 based on the mass of NVP@rGO at a rate of 25mAg−1 (Fig. 3b). In striking contrast, the buffered Na–Cl–IL electrolyte without [EMIm]FSI additive showed a negligible discharge capacity (0.03 mAh g−1) (Fig. 3b). The Na/ NVP@rGO cell in buffered Na–Cl–IL electrolyte showed good rate capabilities at higher rates (Fig. 3c), with a specific discharge capacity of ~ 70 mAh g−1 at 500 mA g−1 (~4.3 C), which was ~ 71% of the specific capacity at 25 mA g−1 (Fig. 3d). The Na/ NVP@rGO cell could retain ~96 % of the initial capacity for over 460 cycles at 150 mA g−1 (~ 0.4 mA cm−2) with a high average CE of 99.9 % (Fig. 3e). This was the first time>99 % CE was achieved for Na metal battery in buffered chloroaluminate IL electrolytes. In comparison, a Na/NVP@rGO cell based on a conventional organic carbonate electrolyte, 1M NaClO4 in ethylene carbonate/diethyl carbonate (EC/DEC, 1:1 by vol) with 5 wt% fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) only retained 79 % of the initial capacity after 450 cycles at 150mAg−1 (Supplementary NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2019)10:3302 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11102-2 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 5 25 50 100 150 200 300 400 500 100 150 95 90 85 80 75 70 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 Specific capacity (mAh g–1) Voltage (V) Current density (A g–1) CE (%) CE (%) Specific capacity (mAh g–1) Voltage (V)PDF Image | sodium metal battery based on an ionic liquid electrolyte
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Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our flow battery manufacturing.CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@salgenx.com (Standard Web Page)