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Journal of Materials Chemistry A Paper a high discharge capacity of 296 mA h g1 and good cycling performance, with a coulombic efficiency of 98% over 50 cycles. Our results suggest that this saltwater battery should be a promising candidate for low-cost, grid-scale stationary EES systems. Results and discussion Design and key components of the saltwater battery The saltwater battery stores electrical energy based on the electrochemical reactions of the NaCl aqueous solution, which is easily available at low cost. The battery structure and its charge/discharge processes are illustrated in Fig. 1a and b. The anode and cathode compartments are separated by a ceramic solid electrolyte. The cathode part contains only a current collector and saltwater, which is used as the Na+ source as well as the catholyte. For the positive current collector, a hydrophilic network-structured carbon paper consisting of numerous microbers is employed (Fig. 1d). It provides a large surface area with many reaction sites, together with good wettability (Fig. 1d, inset). The hydrophilic carbon paper signicantly reduced the overpotentials arising from the charge/discharge processes, compared to a hydrophobic one (Fig. S1, ESI†). The anode part consists of Na metal or sodium-insertion materials (e.g. hard carbon) as the negative electrode23,24 and 1 M NaCF3SO3 in tetra ethylene glycol dimethyl ether (TEGDME) as the liquid organic electrolyte. For the solid electrolyte, a Na super ionic conductor, Na3- Zr2Si2PO12 (NASICON) ceramic, is used to separate the cathode and anode parts and allows the selective transport of Na+. The crystal structure of the synthesised NASICON pellet was iden- tied by X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Fig. S2, ESI†), which showed a typical NASICON phase of the monoclinic structure with the C2/c space group (JCPDS #35-0412).25 Fig. 1e exhibits the plan- view scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image, in which the grain boundaries are clearly visible.26 The appearance and size of the pellet can be seen in the inset digital image. The density of the NASICON pellet was measured to be 3.14 g cm3, which is 96% of its theoretical density of 3.27 g cm3.27 The Nyquist plot of the NASICON pellet at 25 C (Fig. 1f) showed a depressed semicircle in the high frequency region and a linear spike in the low frequency region, which indicates a typical ionic conductor characteristic. From the measured impedance data, the ionic conductivity was evaluated to be approximately 1.0 mS cm1 (the bulk and grain boundary terms were 2.9 and 1.0 mS cm1, respectively), which is similar to ionic conductivities reported in the literature.15,27,28 The prototype saltwater battery cell was assembled with the aforementioned components and then immersed in saltwater before electrochemical testing (Fig. 1c). Reaction mechanism and the effect of salt concentration Using saltwater (containing Na+ and Cl ions and H2O) as the catholyte, the saltwater battery experiences evolution/reduction reactions of gaseous phases, specically the oxygen evolution reaction (OER)/oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and chlorine evolution reaction (CER)/chlorine reduction reaction (CRR) at the cathode during charge/discharge processes (Fig. 1a).19–21 On Fig. 1 Cell structure and key components of the rechargeable saltwater battery. Schematics showing the (a) charge and (b) discharge processes of the saltwater battery. (c) Photograph of the saltwater battery lighting an LED bulb. (d) SEM image of the hydrophilic carbon paper (HCP) used as the current collector, showing its wettability (inset). (e) Plan-view SEM image of the NASICON pellet, and a photograph showing its actual size (inset). (f) Nyquist plot of the NASICON pellet. 7208 | J. Mater. Chem. A, 2016, 4, 7207–7213 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016PDF Image | Saltwater as the energy source for low-cost batteries
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Product and Development Focus for Salgenx
Redox Flow Battery Technology: With the advent of the new USA tax credits for producing and selling batteries ($35/kW) we are focussing on a simple flow battery using shipping containers as the modular electrolyte storage units with tax credits up to $140,000 per system. Our main focus is on the salt battery. This battery can be used for both thermal and electrical storage applications. We call it the Cogeneration Battery or Cogen Battery. One project is converting salt (brine) based water conditioners to simultaneously produce power. In addition, there are many opportunities to extract Lithium from brine (salt lakes, groundwater, and producer water).Salt water or brine are huge sources for lithium. Most of the worlds lithium is acquired from a brine source. It's even in seawater in a low concentration. Brine is also a byproduct of huge powerplants, which can now use that as an electrolyte and a huge flow battery (which allows storage at the source).We welcome any business and equipment inquiries, as well as licensing our flow battery manufacturing.| CONTACT TEL: 608-238-6001 Email: greg@salgenx.com | RSS | AMP |