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applied sciences Review Recent Developments on Hydrogen Production Technologies: State-of-the-Art Review with a Focus on Green-Electrolysis Leonardo Vidas 1 and Rui Castro 2,* Citation: Vidas,L.;Castro,R.Recent Developments on Hydrogen Production Technologies: State-of-the-Art Review with Focus on Green-Electrolysis. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11,11363. https://doi.org/10.3390/ app112311363 Academic Editors: Pooya Davari, Enrico Cagno, Mohsen Soltani and Edris Pouresmaeil Received: 31 July 2021 Accepted: 19 November 2021 Published: 1 December 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- iations. Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). 1 2 Abstract: Growing human activity has led to a critical rise in global energy consumption; since the current main sources of energy production are still fossil fuels, this is an industry linked to the generation of harmful byproducts that contribute to environmental deterioration and climate change. One pivotal element with the potential to take over fossil fuels as a global energy vector is renewable hydrogen; but, for this to happen, reliable solutions must be developed for its carbon-free production. The objective of this study was to perform a comprehensive review on several hydrogen production technologies, mainly focusing on water splitting by green-electrolysis, integrated on hydrogen’s value chain. The review further deepened into three leading electrolysis methods, depending on the type of electrolyzer used—alkaline, proton-exchange membrane, and solid oxide—assessing their characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. Based on the conclusions of this study, further developments in applications like the efficient production of renewable hydrogen will require the consideration of other types of electrolysis (like microbial cells), other sets of materials such as in anion-exchange membrane water electrolysis, and even the use of artificial intelligence and neural networks to help design, plan, and control the operation of these new types of systems. Keywords: hydrogen value chain; hydrogen storage methods; hydrogen production technologies; water electrolysis technologies; alkaline water electrolysis; proton-exchange membrane electrolysis; solid oxide electrolysis 1. Introduction Nowadays, an ever-expanding human population coupled with a growth in anthro- pogenic activities and general better standards of living have led to a significant surge in overall energy consumption [1,2]. Presently, most of the energy generation comes from fossil fuel sources; Figures 1 and 2 show how the widespread use of coal, oil, and natural gas since the beginning of the 19th century has led to the continued emission of greenhouse gases—such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide—causing a gradual increase in the concentration of these gases in the Earth’s atmosphere and contributing to environmen- tal degradation and climate change (it should be noted that the most recent measurement has already peaked at 419 ppm, in May of this year) [3,4]. As is well known, the presence of these gases in the atmosphere traps heat radiating from the Earth toward space, effectively warming it. Figure 3 shows how there is mounting evidence that this global warming is man-made, namely, by observing the rise of world temperatures, the warming of the oceans, shrinking ice sheets, glacial retreats, decreased snow cover, the declining of the Arctic Sea ice, a broad sea level rise, widespread ocean acidification, and more extreme weather events in general [5–7]. Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; leonardo.vidas@tecnico.ulisboa.pt INESC-ID/IST, University of Lisbon, 1000-029 Lisboa, Portugal * Correspondence: rcastro@tecnico.ulisboa.pt Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11363. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311363 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsciPDF Image | Hydrogen Production Technologies Green-Electrolysis
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